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Watermarks
"Ligeia": A Triumph Over Patriarchy
by Erin Leigh Helmey
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From the time that "Ligeia" was written, critics have searched for meaning
within Poe's story of a beautiful woman who died and returned in another's
body. While all critics have moved in different directions, many
have arguably found an allegorical meaning behind the tale. Because many
literary theories depend on each other, contemporary critics tend not to
limit themselves to any single theory. Many critics employ multiple
theoretical perspectives at once so that a text can be best understood.
Many critics have looked to Poe's relationship with women for understanding,
combining biographical and feminist theory, while other critics use a variety
of approaches, such as formalism and psychoanalysis, to develop their own
understanding of what they believe to be an allegory. The collection of
literary criticism surrounding "Ligeia" is insightful and comprehensive,
and readers have the opportunity to examine interpretations from many different
branches of literary theory. By looking at how critics from five
different fields of criticism approach "Ligeia," readers can see how contemporary
critics can interpret from a variety of perspectives in order to acquire
some deeper understanding of the work.
One of the most widely used applications of literary criticism is formalism
or as it is often called, New Criticism. The formalist perspective
treats each piece of literature as a self-sufficient work, placing all
avenues for understanding in the text itself, ignoring the social and political
contexts of the author and publication, the author's biography, and other
works by the same author. Formalist critics believe that form and
structure are essential to the effectiveness of the text and content is
secondary, concentrating on unity and cohesion. In the critical study
of "Ligeia," one of the most argued and quoted applications of formalism
is Grace McEntee's article, "Remembering Ligeia." The underlying
structure in "Ligeia" is said to be representative of the struggle between
muse and artist. McEntee argues that Ligeia is the narrator's muse,
and the narrator's artistic soul is at stake in the story. Ligeia's
death, McEntee says, transforms the narrator "from passive scholar" under
Ligeia's intellectual guidance to "active architect" (77). She shows
how the narrator's gothic chamber is constructed as a form of art while
Rowena is the audience. McEntee notes that the narrator is like a
modern day reader-response critic as he watches the effects of his art
on his audience, Rowena. Ultimately, McEntee illustrates how the
tale provides both Ligeia and the narrator what they want, "insuring Ligeia
the immortality she craves in his work of art while granting him the freedom
to build her inspirations into his own great textual mansion" (82).
Although McEntee argues for this formalist understanding quite effectively,
she barely mentions Ligeia's request to hear "The Conqueror Worm," which
could have strengthened her argument for the muse/artist allegorical interpretation.
However, a formalist analysis of "The Conqueror Worm" is approached
by Brad Howard, who also reveals the publication history of "Ligeia."
Howard informs the reader that "Ligeia" was first published without "The
Conqueror Worm," and the poem was published alone before it was added to
the short story in the 1845 revision. For the most part, Howard also
employs a formalist approach by examining the poem's form, which is said
to emphasize a five-act structure and a controlling theater image.
By dissecting the poem, Howard illustrates how the poem's theatrical motif
"doubles [as] both the theatricality of the action in the tale and the
implicit authorial manipulation of the audience's relationship to its text
by Poe himself" (37). For Howard, the poem seems to dramatize two
major themes of Poe's aesthetic theory: "the transcendental nature of supernal
beauty and the supremacy of the imagination" (37). Both the tale
and the poem come together in the revivification of Ligeia, which Howard
feels represents the moment when "the imagination negates dull reality
by transforming it" (37). Although Howard fails to examine extensively
anything in the tale itself other than Ligeia's revivification, his explication
of "The Conqueror Worm" is convincing and relatively productive, for few
other critics have taken upon themselves the task of discussing the publication
history and, therefore, the later addition of the poem. Overall,
as a formalist, Howard does ignore the structure of the tale alone, which,
given McEntee's interpretation, could accompany the poem quite nicely in
a combined formalist analysis of both pieces, for Howard's argument for
the theatrical motif seems to lend itself to McEntee's muse/artist interpretation.
If the poem acts as a microcosm of the story and focuses around the theatrical
images of the author-creator, audience, and actors, then the poem becomes
an allegory for the creation and production of theatrical art just as the
tale is an allegory for the inspiration and creation of other forms of
art.
Critic Daryl Jones employs myth criticism whereby he tries to connect the
text to ancient myths; however, even with the application of a different
type of criticism, the search is still for some allegorical meaning behind
the tale. Jones first defines the two categories of "Ligeia" criticism
as literal and psychological realism. The literal critics insist
that the Glanvill epigraph announces a theme, and the rest of the plot
of the tale literally confirms this theme. Others, as Jones asserts,
are footed in the psychological realism, which reads the tale at a deeper
level in an examination of the narrator's erotic obsession. Jones,
however, connects Poe's "Ligeia" with the ancient Greek Siren myth, which
stems from Homer's Odyssey. He asserts that his interpretation
is important to both the literal and psychological realism. By viewing
Ligeia as a Siren from classical literature, the importance of her voice
to the narrator, her revivification, and the narrator's poor memory become
more easily explained, for she is an immortal who lures others into an
inescapable trap through her song. On the whole, Jones contends that
seeing Ligeia as a Siren shows how the tale operates convincingly on both
the psychological and literal levels, which illustrates "the irreconcilable
duality of the human will" (37). While Jones argues quite persuasively
for the mythical reading of the text, he nevertheless neglects other aspects
of the tale, such as Rowena and Ligeia's request to hear "The Conqueror
Worm." Jones explains that Sirens lure men to be their victims; however,
that doesn't explain why Rowena becomes a victim of Ligeia's immortality.
Furthermore, on her deathbed, Ligeia asks to hear "The Conqueror Worm,"
which she composed; given Howard's interpretation, the reading of the poem
would serve as a foreshadowing of her return
A more contemporary form of literary theory is reader-response criticism,
which attempts to show how the text shapes the reader's interpretation
or how the reader shapes the text. Reader-response critic Linda Holland-Toll
tries to show how the text shapes the reader, for she asserts that many
readers are "resisting" to the unrealistic occurrences in Poe's tales,
especially "Ligeia." Readers of horror fiction in Holland-Toll's
class are described as having the "inability to accept the literal story
itself, often indicated by such comments as 'this story cannot be viewed
seriously' or 'the narrator is entirely unreliable' or 'I am dragged into
this story by a rope around my neck'" (10). Holland-Toll asserts
that Poe's intention was to frighten and disturb readers, who often resist
the reliability of such stories because they lack the ability to willingly
suspend belief. While using the reader-response theory to ground
her argument, Holland-Toll actually employs genre criticism in order to
offer a solution to the growing number of Poe's resisting readers.
For her, the horror genre provides explanations for the use of the supernatural
and can help students to find "Ligeia" more realistic. In the horror
genre, the reader must be willing to accept the supernatural as a possibility.
Holland-Toll points out other critics' interpretations with the purpose
of revealing their allegorical readings, which for her, degrades the horrific
effect by distancing it. While Holland-Toll offers insight into the
horror genre and its numbers of resisting readers, she fails to reveal
anything new about the text and actually comes close to condemning other
critics' search for allegorical meanings. At one moment, Holland-Toll
evaluates Jones' interpretation of Ligeia as a Siren and mentions that
she would argue Ligeia is "the metaphoric extension of a fallen angel;"
however, she fails to elaborate extensively on her own ideas and actually
contradicts herself, for she is, in fact, inferring that Ligeia is something
other than a human as the reader is told, therefore, applying an allegorical
meaning of her own (14).
In psychoanalytic criticism, critics search for allegorical meanings
as well. The ultimate goal for psychoanalysts is to show how the
author or perhaps a character reveals their hidden unconscious. Joseph
Andriano's article, "Archetypal Projection in 'Ligeia': A Post-Jungian
Reading," which is also criticized by Holland-Toll, ultimately intends
to prove that Ligeia is an anima figure, the unconscious feminine beneath
a masculine conscious. Andriano points out that in most gothic tales
the feminine element within the male is an inner force that is projected
onto an inanimate other. However, Andriano goes a step further by
acknowledging both McEntee and Jones' interpretations of Ligeia as a muse
and Siren, respectively, and he continues, saying that the anima theory
allows for Ligeia to be both Siren and muse.
The whole tale, in Andriano's opinion, is an allegory that traces the unconscious
process of a man who projects the qualities not only of his own mother
but also of his inherited sense of maternity upon a woman. Andriano
says that the narrator is "largely dominated by the unconscious as he writes,
reconstructing his first wife, whose name he does not remember, out of
archetypal material" (28). The narrator's descriptions of Ligeia
are ambivalent, which suggests a mother complex. Andriano says, "He
never loves her as a wife, but as a mother who takes care of him, provides
for him both materially and intellectually" (28). Ligeia, then, is
both anima and "mother-archetype (or imago) within the narrator" (28-29).
The narrator's reaction to Ligeia's revivification is fearful, for he realizes
that he has killed Rowena to project his feminine unconscious, which is
a result of his repression of the anima. Clearly, another allegorical
meaning is applied to Ligeia's character, for Andriano says that "Rowena-Ligeia
is a grotesque image of the Ideal Feminine as Poe's culture defined it:
either the passive doll-bride which the man animates... or the 'more that
womanly' mother to whose stern guidance he submits" (30). Regardless
of the feminine construct of society, the narrator becomes "a victim of
his own Ideal" (30). While Andriano's approach to the tale is interesting
and convincing, his psychoanalytical approach seems to lend itself to a
feminist reading because of the repression, or better yet, the oppression
of the feminine. Although Andriano does not take his approach onto
the feminist level, critics Debra Johanyak and J. Gerald Kennedy do examine
the tale for its implications against women.
Johanyak also applies historical criticism in establishing the context
for the publication of the tale. She notes that the period in which
"Ligeia" was published is marked by the emergence of feminism as a controversial
concern, and she speculates that the story was published in response to
the debate. In relation to the emergence of feminism, Johanyak also
employs biographical criticism by looking at Poe's relationships with women.
Johanyak asserts, "In his personal life, Edgar Allan Poe found himself
ground between the domestic and intellectual edges of feminism. While
admiring influential female writers, he nevertheless clung to his wife's
innocence and mother-in-law's maternal providence" (62). Kennedy
also applies biographical criticism but is the most bold in his accusations
against Poe when he says that Poe proclaimed the death of a beautiful woman
the most poetical topic only "to explain his own sharply vacillating treatment
of dying women" (113). The intentions of both Johanyak and Kennedy
are to show how Poe failed to treat women equally in his own life.
Ultimately, Johanyak, like Kennedy, explores the presentation of Poe's
female characters, in particular, Ligeia. While Poe's dark heroines
serve as "feminist prototypes," his narrators exist as "antifeminist sentiments"
(Johanyak 63). Johanyak also recognizes the narrator's characterization
of Ligeia as a mother, like Andriano, for she says, "By projecting a mother's
role upon Ligeia, he dismisses the significance and influence of her learning
and enmeshes himself in her nurturing domesticity" (66). The narrator
is described by Johanyak as having no interest in intellectual growth but
only wanting to immerse in Ligeia's knowledge. Therefore, the contention
is that the narrator does not accept his wife, and Johanyak accuses the
narrator for Ligeia's death, saying "this lack of material acceptance diminishes
her life because nineteenth-century Ligeia finds no legitimate place for
her unfeminine scholastic achievements" (68). With respect to her
title, "Poesian Feminism: Triumph or Tragedy," Johanyak eventually concludes
that Poe's feminism is a tragedy because the knowledgeable women die; however,
she also explains that the contradictory nature of Poe's presentation of
women is probably a reflection of the mixed feelings of many men during
the beginning of feminism in the nineteenth-century.
Like Johanyak, Kennedy's purpose is essentially to refute other critics'
arguments that Poe is in the "vanguard of male feminists" by showing how
he refused to see women as human in both his work and his life (114).
Rowena, the least human character in the tale, is once again described
as a victim, but Kennedy feels that the narrator "projects on Rowena all
his unconscious resentment of Ligeia" (124). Through the example
of "Ligeia," Kennedy introduces readers to a Poe who is confused about
his stance on women, which is proven through the women presented in both
his poetry and prose. Overall, Poe is characterized as a man who
condemned the power of women while openly stating his appreciation.
Both Johanyak and Kennedy place themselves in opposition to other critics
who see Poe's tales as a feminist critique on society's oppression of women;
however, these perspectives have yet to be found in my own research.
The main argument for Poe being an antifeminist is the death of Ligeia
and other women in his work; however, Ligeia returns, proving that her
strength and will are greater than even the male narrator. I agree
with Johanyak that Ligeia functions as a feminist prototype and the narrator
functions as an antifeminist prototype; however, I feel that Poe's feminism
is a "triumph," perceiving Poe's annihilative tale to be an intentional,
ironic critique of a patriarchal society's attitude toward the advancement
of women's equality.
While the narrator is, for the most part, an antifeminist prototype, he
often symbolizes the contradictory nature of perhaps many men during this
time as mentioned by Johanyak. In the beginning of the tale, many
of the narrator's recollections of Ligeia establish an equal relationship,
for he speaks of Ligeia saying that she "became the partner" of his studies
(655). The word "partner" implies an equality within their relationship
while other descriptions of Ligeia make her seem to be, as Johanyak states,
"more of a ghost than a woman" (67). Descriptions, like "She came
and departed like a shadow," make Ligeia less human and infer an inequality,
for a "shadow" is certainly not a description for a powerful woman.
As a whole, the narrator spends approximately three pages discussing the
appearance of Ligeia while he takes only a paragraph to tell of her "immense"
knowledge, which shows that her intellectual ability meant less to him
than her beauty (657). Although the narrator displays respect for
Ligeia's learning, he also does so by characterizing her as a mother, which
is critiqued by both Andriano and Johanyak. The narrator says, "I
was sufficiently aware of her infinite supremacy to resign myself, with
a childlike confidence... " (658). Later, he says, "Without Ligeia
I was but as a child groping benighted" (658). By making himself
analogous to a child, the narrator reduces Ligeia to the conforms of society
as a mother figure. Clearly through his contradictory statements,
the narrator is confused about his feelings toward Ligeia and her qualities,
therefore, fashioning himself to be an antifeminist, perhaps representing
many men during the time period.
Ligeia's feminist proportions are clear because she is described as powerful
and intelligent, which was not the norm during the nineteenth century,
for the narrator says that he has "never known in woman" such intelligence
(658). The narrator even compares Ligeia's intellectual ability to
men, asking, "Where breathes the man who, like her, has traversed, and
successfully, all the wide areas of moral, natural, and mathematical
science?" (658). When it comes to the powers of the mind, Ligeia
is further characterized as having "infinite supremacy," which places her
in opposition to other women of the time period, for they had few opportunities
for a quality education. Ligeia, then, represents a woman far ahead
of her time because she not only achieved an equality with narrator, she
succeeded in gaining complete power and control. Even after her death,
she filters into the mind of the narrator and controls his every thought.
The tale as a whole represents the rising of a new kind of woman in society
while letting go of the old convictions and perceptions surrounding a woman's
existence. Although Ligeia is the narrator's first wife, she symbolizes
the new woman, perhaps created by the emanation of feminism in the nineteenth
century. On top of her immense knowledge, she is beautiful as well; however,
even her beauty is described as being unusually different. The narrator
notices Ligeia's qualities, saying, "I saw that the features of Ligeia
were not of classic regularity, although I perceived that her loveliness
was indeed 'exquisite'" (656). Again, the narrator says, "her features
were not of that regular mould which we have been falsely taught to worship
in the classical laborsÖ" (655). She is described as tall and slender
with "ivory" skin, "raven" hair, and "black" eyes (656). Clearly,
Ligeia is woman who is different, perhaps revolutionary both physically
and mentally.
On the other hand, Rowena is not so different. She is described in
terms of being a wife, weak with illness. Rowena's intelligence never
arises within the text, but as readers, we can assume that her intellect
is not of Ligeia's caliber since she is only described as a bride.
Because of this characterization, her entrance into the bridal chamber
resulting in death represents what the lifestyle of only marriage provides
for women. As it offered Rowena only terror, submission, and death,
female readers of the nineteenth century can perceive that they will receive
misery through life as just bride or wife. Furthermore, Rowena's
physical characteristics are described in complete opposition to Ligeia's,
for the narrator says, "I led from the altar as my brideóas the successor
of the unforgotten Ligeiaóthe fair-haired and blue-eyed lady Rowena Trevanion,
of Tremaine" (659). Equipped with blue eyes and blonde hair, Rowena
becomes a representative of classical beauty and the ideal, at least in
the eyes of men.
Although the narrator cannot forget Ligeia and devote himself to Rowena,
he is in control while he is with her as opposed to his time with Ligeia,
which accounts for his horror when Ligeia is revived in Rowena's body.
His response is to shriek aloud when Ligeia returns because the woman he
could not control returned, which clearly illustrates his position as an
antifeminist, for he is fearful of the "new woman," a woman who is independent
and powerful. Furthermore, the very fact that Ligeia, a representative
of the new, independent female, conquers Rowena, a representative of the
old, passive and submissive female, proves that the tale illustrates the
potential power of women. The narrator's reaction is like that of
many men during the time who could not handle the growing power and independence
of women, illustrating how the tale is a critique of society and society's
responses to the emergence of feminism during the nineteenth century.
While each of these theoretical perspectives are different, each gets to
the essences of the text in its own particular way. Although some
approaches require that the critic stay within the text for meaning, other
forms of criticism demand that the critic also examine the historical and
social contexts of the tale's publication. The advantage of literary
theory is that it provides critics with a number of approaches and the
freedom to take any perspective that they may find useful in extracting
meaning from the text. An individual text can be interpreted in numerous
ways as confirmed by the magnitude of essays on "Ligeia." Although
some approaches are more helpful than others, depending upon the text,
a literary work can be best understood when taking all perspectives under
consideration and applying several approaches at once.
Works Cited
Andriano, Joseph. "Archetypal Projection in 'Ligeia': A Post-Jungian
Reading." Poe Studies. 19.2 (1986): 27-31.
Holland-Toll, Linda J.
"'Ligeia': The Facts in the Case." Studies
in Weird Fiction.
21 (1997): 10-16.
Howard, Brad. "'The Conqueror Worm': Dramatizing Aesthetics in 'Ligeia'."
Poe
Studies.
21.2 (1988):
36-43.
Johanyak, Debra.
"Poesian Feminism: Triumph or Tragedy." College
Language Association Journal.
39.1 (1995):
62-70.
Jones, Daryl E.
"Poe's Siren:
Character and Meaning in
'Ligeia.'"
Studies in Short Fiction.
20.1 (1983):
33-37.
Kennedy, J. Gerald.
"Poe, 'Ligeia,' and the Problem of Dying
Women."
New Essays on Poe's Major Tales.
Ed. Kenneth
Silverman.
Cambridge:
Cambridge UP, 1993.
113-129.
McEntee, Grace.
"Remembering Ligeia."
Studies in American
Fiction.
20.1 (1992):
75-83.
Poe, Edgar Allan.
"Ligeia."
The Norton Anthology of
American Literature.
Shorter 4th ed.
Ed. Baym, Nina,
et al.
New York:
WW Norton & Company, 1995.
655-664.
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