Dame Siriz and the Devolution of the Courtly Code of Conduct

The English aristocracy, like the French, laid claim to courtly conduct as a distinctive criteria for the upper class. Likewise, both the romance and the fabliau flourished among the English; the romance serving to instill courtly ideals, and the fabliau serving to show social realities. Beginning with such early works as Horn and Havelok, the romance tradition in England has been firmly established. The fabliau tradition in England, however, has been the source of some scholarly controversy, primarily because there are very few extant English fabliaux and only twelve Anglo-Norman ones.

As Robert E. Lewis explains in an article about the English tradition, the scarcity of fabliaux in English is probably due to the social situation in England (248). Until the fourteenth century, most of the written records in England were in French, which was considered "a cultivated tongue supported by social custom and by business and administrative convention" (A. Baugh 134). Thus, the possibility of an oral fabliau tradition in England is quite likely, especially if one considers that many literary genres were imported from France and that the handful of insular fabliaux have much in common with the continental tradition.

In addition to the evidence cited above, there are some other indications that the fabliau tradition existed in England. My purpose is to show not only that the insular fabliaux were of the same tradition as the continental ones, but also to examine closely, in one representative tale, the use of courtly language as a device to show changing social roles.

Dame Siriz is an English fabliau preserved in a single manuscript, Oxford Digby 86, that is dated around 1275. The story concerns Wilkin, a young clerk, who attempts to seduce Marjeri, a merchant's wife. When his wooing fails, Wilkin relies upon the scheming of an old bawd named Dame Siriz. To trick Marjeri, Dame Siriz forces her dog to eat mustard and pepper, causing the dog's eyes to water. Then, Dame Siriz convinces Marjeri that the dog is a young woman who has been thus transformed because she refused the advances of an amorous clerk.

The manuscript which contains Dame Siriz includes one other work, The Fox and the Well, an animal fable which follows the French Roman de Renart. As with other such works, this French fable shares some characteristics with the fabliau, although the primary characters are animals and the tale is not concerned with social roles. In this fable, a conniving fox falls into a well, then tricks an unwitting wolf to jump in and save him. The trick which the fox develops is, in keeping with the fabliau tradition, rather complicated, and the wolf is abused in a manner similar to the fabiau dupe. He is rescued from the well but is beaten by some monks who think he is the devil. Also, there is some mention of cuckoldry as the wolf confronts the fox about having an affair with his wife, and this mention of cuckoldry is certainly reminiscent of the fabliau.

Dame Siriz is most frequently characterized by its "weeping bitch" motif, which is apparent in a number of medieval works. This weeping bitch motif has been identified in Petrus Alfonsi's Disciplina Clericalis near the beginning of the twelfth century (the earliest Western work in which I can trace the motif). In addition, it appears in two Latin versions of the Gesta Romanorum and a collection of exempla by Jaques de Vitry. I have also found the motif in English collections of exempla and in several collections of fables, including Caxton's fifteenth-century collections of Aesop's fables, and in Les Contes Moralises de Nicole Bozon, which appears in the late thirteenth century.

A brief consideration of the different contexts of the weeping bitch motif serves to emphasize the encoder's strategy when creating a fabliau. The fact that most fabliaux motifs are evident in a variety of medieval genres confirms that the canonized fabliaux result from the merging and re-shaping of pre-existing literary forms. For the scholar seeking a thorough understanding of the medieval fabliaux, the motif must be viewed as only one of many story elements to be considered. To understand how the weeping bitch motif changes contexts in the fabliau, one must focus upon those elements which are insignificant or absent in the analogues. In Dame Siriz, the courtly overtones describing the young lover is an issue, whereas the lover's status is not signigicant in the other genres. For example, Petrus Alfonsi's version of the weeping bitch motif is framed with four other exempla concerned with the evils of women. The framework includes a dialogue between student and pupil, and the intent of the story is clearly diatetic. The status of the young lover is not specified, and the old bawd is dressed as a nun, to emphasize her malicious nature. In Jaques de Vitry's version, which appears around 1200, there is no mention of the young man attempting to court the wife, although courtly wooing is important in the fabliau. Likewise, Caxton's fable version is much shorter than the fabliau, omitting courtly passages and references to social status. In this case, the weeping bitch is actually a cat. Although some of the analogues mention that the young man attempts to seduce the wife, courtly passages or detailed accounts of the wooing are omitted, as is the explicit sexual scene with which the fabliau concludes. Rather, these versions which emphasize a moral ending contain numerous references to God and to the evils of women. The sexual encounter at the end of the tale is described with polite euphemisms in the analogues; in Aesop's version, for example, we are told that the young man "fulfills his will," and the emphasis upon the moral is highlighted. In one version which appears in the Gesta Romanorum, the moral presents a religious allegorization of the characters which is actually longer than the text. Although all of the analogues share essentially the same plot, the narrative techniques vary greatly from the exemplum and fable (moralistic genres) to the fabliau. Primarily, the exemplum and fable are characterized by a terse plot with little character development and by a lengthy moral which is the focus of the narrative. Although Dame Siriz also has a moral-like conclusion (the old lady offers advice for enamoured men), the decoder de-emphasizes the moral intent and embellishes the short narrative with devices that make this tale definitively a part of the fabliau continuum.

In creating a fabliau from this familiar material, the encoder of Dame Siriz had to rework the motif, shifting emphasis and adding devices which would cue his audience to expect a different kind of work. Although the motif serves as a framework for the fabliau decoder, those elements that make the tale a fabliau are the commentary upon societal transitions and the frequent use of romance conventions. Amidst the social upheavals of the later Middle Ages, the courtly code of conduct naturally expanded to accommodate changing levels of society, and in the process it lost much of its original esteem. To describe the altered role of courtly conduct in Dame Siriz, I shall rely upon the term "devolution." In the context of this discussion, the term implies not only a "descent through stages in time," but also "a descent by natural succession," or a passing of power from one social class to another (Oxford English Dictionary). Thus, the term "devolution" refers to actual societal changes that profoundly influenced the horizon of expectations from which medieval audiences approached literary works. To illustrate that these societal changes are important formative elements to the fabliau genre, I will focus upon specific linguistic and textual features in Dame Siriz that demonstrate the literary manifestations of the devolution of courtly language.

This fabliau begins with a description of the young clerk. His name, Wilkin, is not revealed until quite late in the tale. Robert E. Lewis explains that Wilkin is a "decidedly noncourtly name" (250). Likewise, his status as clerk is not revealed to the audience. Rather, his specific identity remains anomymous, and the language used to describe him is courtly:

Ful modi mon and proud;

Wis he wes of lore,

And gouplich vnder gore,

And cloped in fair sroud.

In courtly genres, the adjectives "modi," "proud," "wis," and "gouplich" are restricted in their reference to chivalric heros. In the fabliau, however, these terms are examples of the literary irony that results from devolved language, for Wilkin is gradually exposed as the antithesis of a courtly character. In fact, much of the artistry of this tale is attributed to the decoder's ability to begin his tale quite ambiguously. He seems purposefully to lead his audience to expect a courtly tale, then reorients his reader to the world of the fabliau. The audience's first impression of Wilkin as a courtly character allows for ironic contrast as his true status emerges. Thus, the level of identification is ironic as the audience recognizes the incongruous functions of courtly terms in the context of the fabliau.

The audience is provided with cues that gradually expose this character as a social climber. For example, in the romance, the term "modi" refers strictly to the pride and fierce courage expected of a chivalric lover. But in Dame Siriz, the meaning of the term becomes increasingly ambiguous as it appears several times in the course of the tale. In the opening description of an anonymous young man, a medieval audience would most likely receive the term according to its most conventional usage as a courtly descriptive. The ironic use of the term becomes only gradually apparent, as we realize that the young man being described is actually a bourgeoise clerk named Wilkin.

Near the end of the tale, Wilkin is once again described as modi.. At this point in the narrative, a medieval audience might recognize the expanded connotations of the word as it functioned in the later Middle Ages and the irony of the term as referrent to Wilkin. The Middle English Dictionary records "moody" and "arrogant" as additional meanings that this term acquires. Certainly, these adjectives more accurately describe this bourgeois, would-be lover who indicates no signs of pride or fierce courage. Because the function of courtly language was changing for medieval society, the decoder of this fabliau could use newly ambiguous terms to manipulate the expectations of his audience.

In the beginning section of Dame Siriz, other examples of courtly language abound. Marjeri's dwelling is "riche" (21), and she is "srud wip palle" (23), or dressed in an elegant robe. Upon his arrival at her home, Wilkin is greeted warmly by Marjeri, who attempts to mimic the hospitality expected in courtly situations:

Welcome, so ich ever bide winne

*******************

wat is pi wille let me wite,

Mi leuelif. (26-30)

Initially, Wilkin makes an effort to woo Marjeri with the humble language expected of a chivalric lover:

Min hernde willi to pe bede;

Bote wrappen pe for ani dede

Were me lop. (40-43)

Interspersed with these courtly passages are clues that redirect the expectations of the audience. In keeping with courtly works, Wilkin discreetly requests Marjeri's love, avoiding any language that might be offensive to a lady of high position: "Dame, if hit is pi wille,/ bop dernelike and stille,/ Ich wille pe loue" (85-87). In his research on the language in this tale, Robert E. Lewis explains that the courtly code of conduct requires that love affairs be approached secretly, "dernelike," to secure the lady's reputation (254). However, Marjeri's reaction to Wilkin's request is unlike that of the typical romance heroine and shows a devolution of the courtly notion of clandestine love affairs. The secrecy of the affair is considered shameful and cheap by Marjeri, as it was not in courtly literature. Furthermore, she claims to love her husband, and married love clearly is not part of the courtly system. Andreas Capellanus, whose twelfth century work served to codify proper conduct for courtly lovers, specifically states that "Love cannot acknowledge any rights of his between husband and wife" (107), and in the canonized romance, marriage is seldom an issue between lovers.

The fabliau plot frequently focuses upon infidelity, and the sexual relationship between lovers is graphically revealed, thereby devaluing the idealistic notion that courtly love remain a private matter. For example, Marjerie insists that she will not deceive her husband "on bed ne on flore" (102). Her direct reference to a physical consummation on "flore" or "bed" (101) provides a sharp contrast to the removed, idealized language of courtly genres.

Though a modern reader might overlook the complex word associations in this passage, a medieval audience might associate the term "flore" with "flower," the classic romance lover's bower. The notion of such complex punning becomes even more feasible when we consider that Dame Siriz was apparently written by a Southern scribe, and "flore" is a common spelling for "flower" in manuscripts of this dialect (Middle English Dictionary). The incongruity that results from devolved courtly language provides layers of association not readily apparent to the modern reader, as this example shows. Such punning is an important ingredient of numerous Old French fabliaux, and Dame Siriz provides evidence that the tradition was, in fact, continued in England. Similar language play is apparent throughout the tale. For example, Marjeri's behavior towards Wilkin, which so clearly mimics courtly behavior, may seem especially puzzling to the reader attempting to reduce her language to univocal meaning.

If I mai don ani ping

pat pe is lef

pou mit finden me ful fre. (32-34)

As a bourgeois character attempting to adopt the social norms of the aristocracy, Marjeri may adopt these words of welcome as conventional courtly hospitality. Perhaps she is simply too innocent to understand the implications of the language she employs. She may not be aware that her willingness to do "ani ping" or her statement that she is "ful fre" could be interpreted by Wilkin as a clear indication that she will grant him sexual favors.

More likely, we should recognize Marjeri fitting the typical fabliau stereotype of a young, lusty, bourgeois wife, well aware of the plays of meaning in the language she employs. If we see her in this light, then her behavior towards Wilkin seems especially flirtatious, even a little cruel. A synchronic consideration reveals that such intentional entrapments by women are not alien to the genre. For example, consider Allison in "The Miller's Tale" who promises lovesick, prudish Absolon a kiss and then offers him her bare backside. Like Allison,  Marjeri is an independent, assertive female character, well in control of the unfortunate circumstances in which she finds herself. In fact, Marjeri's clever manipulation of ambiguous language indicates that the decoder of Dame Siriz is able to employ irony perhaps as effectively as Chaucer.

Marjeri also has much in common with a host of other fabliaux women who reverse the unfortunate situations in which they find themselves. For example, the clever wife in Du Vilain mire (III) causes her abusive husband to be beaten, and the manipulative wife in Des Trois Bocu (I) has her hunchback husband beaten and thrown into a river. Although Dame Siriz lacks the violence of these two Old French tales, she uses courtly language as a weapon, and she gains control of the situation. Like these other fabliau women, her role as victim is minimized as she proves to be as calculating as her attacker. In Dame Siriz, the importance of courtly language as an ironic device is evidenced throughout the banter between the potential lovers. Marjeri claims that she will not refuse Wilkin's request, as long as he is able to speak correctly: "And if pat pou tellest skil,/ I shal don after pi wil" (52-53). Because Wilkin is not a courtly character, he is unable to speak correctly, and even if he were, Marjeri, a simple bourgeoise wife, would not be able to respond appropriately.

The writer's emphasis upon Wilkin's inablility to "tellest skil" is quite typical in the fabliau tradition. Frequently, the fabliau plot revolves around a character's attempts to talk and behave according to the expectations of the class to which he aspires. Another work which recognizes the importance of speech and comments upon it in the narrative is Du Vilain qui conquist paradis (III). Unlike Wilkin, the villain in this fabliau is able to speak well, and as a reward, he wins his way into heaven. St. Peter congratulates him on his ability to ascend the social ladder, albeit he manages to do so only after death:

"Paradis a si desrenie.

Que par pledier l'as gaaignie

Tu as este a bone escole.

Tu sez bien conter ta parole."

"You now deserve to enter Paradise

For by pleading you have won it.

You are well schooled,

For you speak your words very well.

Wilkin is not at skilled in speech as the villain in this Old French fabliau, for his attempts to speak well fail. His ineffective courtly language does, however, foreshadow the outcome of the tale; Wilkin will have to find some other way to win Marjeri's affections.

When Marjeri rejects him, Wilkin makes only one final attempt, urging her "rew on me" (114) and assuring her that he will lament her rejection. But the tone of the narrative in these lines imperfectly mirrors the heartsickness of a true courtly lover and reaffirms the irony in his initial attempts at courtly behavior. Embedded in Wilkin's departing words is an almost cheery exclamation: "haue now godnedai!" (145). Certainly, a traditional courtly lover would be more persistent and more patient, suffering over the lady's rejection and growing pale and sickly in the process. The audience may begin to alter its expectations about the tale, from one that presents courtly ideals to one that mocks those ideals by contrasting them with social realities.

Though Wilkin mimics the conventions of courtly conduct, he can never truly embody them. Rather than lamenting his loss in romance fashion, he takes a direct approach, seeking the assistance of the old bawd. His conversation with Dame Siriz, direct and indiscreet in reference to the purely physical satisfaction he seeks, epitomizes the devolution of the courtly concept of love. Ironically, the term "love" appears several times in the dialogue between Wilkin and Dame Siriz. Wilkin confesses that he is lovesick for Marjeri, and the old bawd agrees to devise a trick to help him: "I shal kenne hire sulke a lore,/ Pat hoe shal louien pe mikel more" ( 264-265). Though courtly love in the romance may result in a sexual union, sex is always treated discreetly. The focus is upon the process of earning the affections of a lover; not upon the physical act. However, in this fabliau, the concept of courtly love is reduced to immediate sexual gratification. Furthermore, love becomes a mercantile affair for these bourgeois characters. Wilkin must pay Dame Siriz for her services, and the encoder devotes several passages to emphasize their business transaction: "ich wille geue pe gift ful stark,/ Moni a pound and moni a marke,/ Warme pilche and warm shon" (ll. 225-228). Of course, money is frequently mentioned in t/he fabliau, for it is the aquisition of wealth that encourages low class characters such as Wilkin to aspire to improved social status. The courtly concept of love is cheapened as the lower classes attempt to buy into the social norms of the wealthy. Thus, fabliau encoders frequently refer to exchanges of money to emphasize the changing norms of courtly conduct.

References to such homely items as shoes and clothing also recur throughout the tale, confirming the fabliau's status as "rooted in the real" and, more importantly, toying with the decoder's initial expectation for a tale in keeping with the idealistic romance genre. Wilkin's early attempts at wooing Marjeri with courtly language are made utterly ridiculously here, as he resorts to bribing an old lady whose ragged appearance confirms her status as vilain. Although such lower class characters never have central roles in the romance, Dame Siriz's participation in this fabliau love-affair confirms the devolution of courtly love.

D'Auberee la vielle maquerelle (V), an early thirteenth-century fabliau which is contained in eight different manuscripts, is a close analogue to Dame Siriz, particularly because both tales depend upon the trickery of an old bawd. In D'Auberee la vielle maquerelle (V), a wealthy man prevents his son from marrying a poor young girl. Like Wilkin, the young man becomes lovesick. He is especially distressed when the young girl marries a wealthy widowed citizen, and he seeks the devices of the old bawd. Perhaps because the encoder establishes the characters' status early in the tale, this fabliau lacks the courtly passages that subtly hint at Wilkin's true estate.

Rather than attempting to woo the wife, the young man in D'Auberee la vielle maquerelle (V) goes directly to a third party, emphasizing that his interest is entirely sexual. In this case, the bawd hides a man's coat underneath the girl's mattress. When the girl's husband discovers the coat, he throws the girl out of the house, and she goes to the old bawd for refuge. At the home of the old bawd, the young man rapes the wife. Like Dame Siriz, the old lady makes up a story: she takes the blame for the coat and convinces the husband to allow the girl return home.

In Dame Siriz, the yarn that the old bawd devises parallels the situation between Marjeri and Wilkin and reveals much about their actual status. When the old bawd announces that the weeping dog was once her daughter and was transformed by a lovesick clerk, Marjeri immediately recognizes her own dilemma. It is not until this point in the tale that the encoder reveals Wilkin's actual status as clerk and confirms that his early courtly language and behavior devolve in the context of the fabliau. Although the encoder has provided numerous clues, he confirms the audience's suspicions about Wilkin's status only indirectly. Like Marjerie, the decoder must come to his own conclusions based upon the old bawd's yarn and surmise that Wilkin, too, is a clerk. Dame Siriz's yarn complicates the narrative, adding dimensions that are not alien to the genre. For example, Le Sentier Batu (III) and Des .III. Chanoinesses (III) both contain "tales within the tale." Also, this "tale within the tale" in Dame Siriz provides some clues about Marjeri's husband. We are told early in the fabliau that Marjeri's husband is away "hon his marchaundise" (18), a hint that he is probably a merchant or businessman. The husband in Dame Siriz's yarn, her son-in-law, is described as "feir" (339), "fre"(339), and "curteis" (341). These courtly descriptives indicate that this fictional man and perhaps Marjeri's husband have some courtly pretensions, making them literary reflections of the social-climbing bourgeoise. The fabliaux frequently target such social climbing husbands as dupes, exposing their inability to truly penetrate the exclusive world of the nobility.

The story that Dame Siriz concocts about her weeping dog is used as a trick to make Marjeri have sex with Wilkin, and the result is more akin to rape than love. As a result of the yarn, Marjeri succumbs to Wilkin against her will, for she fears being changed into a weeping bitch. Her earlier flirtatious behavior indicates her awareness of the newly ironic language she employs and keeps her from seeming pitiable. Marjeri sends Dame Siriz to find Wilkin, and when he arrives, she greets him with the diplomacy expected of a courtly lady: "Welcome, Wilkin, swete ping,/ pou art welcomore pen pe king" (ll. 425-426); "Turned ich haue mi pout,/ For I ne wolde nout/ pat pou pe shuldest spille" (ll. 430-432). Here, we see just how evasive this language has become. Similar terminology, which has been exposed to reveal new ambiguities in the course of the tale, is neatly repackaged to serve Marjeri's purpose. Because she is aware of the slipperiness of devolved courtly language, Marjeri is able to turn the tables on these tricksters, and, ironically, to keep her dignity intact. Though Marjeri is forced to succumb to Wilkin, she is able to manipulate courtly language, asserting that the seduction is her idea and claiming that her concern is for Wilkin's well-being.

As a result, Marjeri is unscathed by Dame Siriz's departing remarks to Wilkin: "And loke pat pou hire tille,/ And strek out hire pes" (ll. 440-441). I have already established the role of such graphic language in the fabliau as a specific response to the courtly taboo of offensive or graphic language, described by Charles Muscatine as a "doctrine of clean language" (Old French 133). In the fabliau, sexuality is no longer veiled, for the very language which once veiled it is exposed to fully reveal its implications. Dame Siriz's statement functions as an obvious confirmation in language that the courtly code of conduct is now devolved.

Even the most acceptable terminology for lovemaking, such as Wilkin attempts in the early passages of this work, is cheapened by these bourgeois characters. The courtly notion of clandestine love affairs, illustrated in the term "dernelike" which we discussed earlier, is further devalued at the end of the fabliau. Wilkin must request that Dame Siriz leave the room, for otherwise the old lady would watch Wilkin and Marjeri's lovemaking. Here, Wilkin's early promise of secrecy is exposed as a ridiculous, comical notion compared to the secret love affairs in courtly works.

By the end of Dame Siriz, Marjeri and Wilkin are fully exposed as characters for whom the courtly code of conduct was not intended and cannot properly function, and in this respect, the tale demonstrates that the English and continental tradition are closely connected. From a diachronic perspective, there is utlimately only one tradition of fabliau which certainly evolves to accomadate an expanding audience but retains unity through an unchanging dominant. The fabliau dominant, the model of the world presented in the genre, is an accurate reflection of those social changes discussed in Chapter Four. As the bourgeois class acquired power and money, many of the newly rich attempted to "buy into" the aristocracy, adopting courtly language and behavior and defacing the courtly code of conduct in the process. Once these social changes were underway and achieved generic status, courtly works could no longer be read in the same way. No longer the ideal of an elite class, the courtly code of conduct lost its original esteem. Marjeri and Wilkin illustrate that, in order to be accessible to the rising bourgeoisie, the very nature of the system had to change, and its original intent was left ambiguous. As a literary device in the fabliau, courtly language devolves and becomes a source for rich irony.

Scholars have devoted much attention to the ironic use of courtly norms in Chaucerian works such as the "Miller's Tale." However, the roots of this irony can be seen much earlier, beginning in the late twelfth century. Dame Siriz indicates that certain characteristics of the continental fabliau were carried over into England, and, in conjunction with the evidence for an English tradition which I mentioned earlier, this tale demonstrates that the fabliau tradition did exist in England.

* A version of this chapter was presented at the 25th International Congress on Medieval Studies at Western Michigan University, May 10-13, 1990.  Much of the content here is also from my doctoral dissertation, The Social Satire of the Medieval Fabliau:  A Literary/Historical Approach to the Genre,  University of Georgia, 1993.